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Figure 1


Fig. 1. Wing motions. (A) Steady forward flight, (B) hovering using a pair of motion in part a, (C) gliding (rotation of A), (D) gliding followed by a vertical upstroke, (E) gliding followed by a lift-generating upstroke, and (F) hovering using a mirror pair of E. Parameters: {alpha}d,u are the angle of attack in down- and upstrokes, respectively, βd,u the angle of the stroke plane, Ud,u the velocity, and {epsilon} the fraction of time spent on the upstroke, i.e. Uu/Ud=[(1–{epsilon})/{epsilon}]/(sinβd/sinβu).