|
| |
|
|
|
|
||||
| Home Help Feedback Subscriptions Archive Search Table of Contents | ||||
Energetic Cost of Generating Muscular Force During Running : A Comparison of Large and Small Animals
1 Museum of Comparative Zoology, Applied Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, U.S.A.
2 Division of Engineering and Applied Physics, Harvard University Cambridge, MA 02138, U.S.A.
The energetic cost of generating muscular force was studied by measuring the energetic cost of carrying loads in rats, dogs, humans, and horses for loads ranging between 7 and 27% of body mass.
Oxygen consumption increased in direct proportion to mass supported by the muscles, i.e.
VOO2,L/VOO2/mL/m = 1.01 ± S.D. ± 0.017, where VOO2,L is the oxygen consumption of the animal running with a load, VOO2 is the oxygen consumption at the same speed without a load, mL, is the mass of the animal plus the load, and m is the mass of the animal.
Stride frequency, average number of feet on the ground over an integral number of strides, the time of contact of each foot relative to the other feet, and the average vertical acceleration during the contact phase were not measurably changed by the loads used in our experiments. From these observations we conclude that the average accelerations of the centre of mass of the animal are not changed by carrying the loads, and that muscular force developed by the animal increases in direct proportion to the load.
It follows that the rate of energy utilization by muscles of an animal as it runs along the ground at any particular speed is nearly directly proportional to the force exerted by its muscles.
The energetic cost of generating force over an interval of time (
F dt) increases markedly with running speed.
An important consequence of the direct proportionality between increased oxygen consumption and mass of the load is that small animals expend much more energy to generate a given force at a given speed than large animals.
Submitted on August 21, 1979
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  L. P. J. Teunissen, A. Grabowski, and R. Kram Effects of independently altering body weight and body mass on the metabolic cost of running J. Exp. Biol., December 15, 2007; 210(24): 4418 - 4427. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. P. Kabat, R. A. Phillips, J. P. Croxall, and P. J. Butler Differences in metabolic costs of terrestrial mobility in two closely related species of albatross J. Exp. Biol., August 15, 2007; 210(16): 2851 - 2858. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Doke and A. D. Kuo Energetic cost of producing cyclic muscle force, rather than work, to swing the human leg J. Exp. Biol., July 1, 2007; 210(13): 2390 - 2398. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. Pontzer Effective limb length and the scaling of locomotor cost in terrestrial animals J. Exp. Biol., May 15, 2007; 210(10): 1752 - 1761. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. Pontzer Predicting the energy cost of terrestrial locomotion: a test of the LiMb model in humans and quadrupeds J. Exp. Biol., February 1, 2007; 210(3): 484 - 494. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 T. M. Griffin Powering locomotion? It's a loaded question J Appl Physiol, November 1, 2006; 101(5): 1273 - 1274. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Iriarte-Diaz, F. Bozinovic, and R. A. Vasquez What explains the trot-gallop transition in small mammals? J. Exp. Biol., October 15, 2006; 209(20): 4061 - 4066. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. P. McGowan, H. A. Duarte, J. B. Main, and A. A. Biewener Effects of load carrying on metabolic cost and hindlimb muscle dynamics in guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) J Appl Physiol, October 1, 2006; 101(4): 1060 - 1069. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. L. Marsh, D. J. Ellerby, H. T. Henry, and J. Rubenson The energetic costs of trunk and distal-limb loading during walking and running in guinea fowl Numida meleagris: I. Organismal metabolism and biomechanics J. Exp. Biol., June 1, 2006; 209(11): 2050 - 2063. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. J. Ellerby and R. L. Marsh The energetic costs of trunk and distal-limb loading during walking and running in guinea fowl Numida meleagris: II. Muscle energy use as indicated by blood flow J. Exp. Biol., June 1, 2006; 209(11): 2064 - 2075. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. R. White, P. G. D. Matthews, and R. S. Seymour Balancing the competing requirements of saltatorial and fossorial specialisation: burrowing costs in the spinifex hopping mouse, Notomys alexis J. Exp. Biol., June 1, 2006; 209(11): 2103 - 2113. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. R. Modica and R. Kram Metabolic energy and muscular activity required for leg swing in running J Appl Physiol, June 1, 2005; 98(6): 2126 - 2131. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. R. Weibel and H. Hoppeler Exercise-induced maximal metabolic rate scales with muscle aerobic capacity J. Exp. Biol., May 1, 2005; 208(9): 1635 - 1644. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. Pontzer A new model predicting locomotor cost from limb length via force production J. Exp. Biol., April 15, 2005; 208(8): 1513 - 1524. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Lipp, H. Wolf, and F.-O. Lehmann Walking on inclines: energetics of locomotion in the ant Camponotus J. Exp. Biol., February 15, 2005; 208(4): 707 - 719. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Doke, J. M. Donelan, and A. D. Kuo Mechanics and energetics of swinging the human leg J. Exp. Biol., February 1, 2005; 208(3): 439 - 445. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. A. Biewener, C. T. Farley, T. J. Roberts, and M. Temaner Muscle mechanical advantage of human walking and running: implications for energy cost J Appl Physiol, December 1, 2004; 97(6): 2266 - 2274. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. Ramos, D. J. Irschick, and T. E. Christenson Overcoming an evolutionary conflict: Removal of a reproductive organ greatly increases locomotor performance PNAS, April 6, 2004; 101(14): 4883 - 4887. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. L. Marsh, D. J. Ellerby, J. A. Carr, H. T. Henry, and C. I. Buchanan Partitioning the Energetics of Walking and Running: Swinging the Limbs Is Expensive Science, January 2, 2004; 303(5654): 80 - 83. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. J. Irschick, B. Vanhooydonck, A. Herrel, and A. Andronescu Effects of loading and size on maximum power output and gait characteristics in geckos J. Exp. Biol., November 15, 2003; 206(22): 3923 - 3934. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. E. Minetti, L. Boldrini, L. Brusamolin, P. Zamparo, and T. McKee A feedback-controlled treadmill (treadmill-on-demand) and the spontaneous speed of walking and running in humans J Appl Physiol, August 1, 2003; 95(2): 838 - 843. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. M. Griffin, T. J. Roberts, and R. Kram Metabolic cost of generating muscular force in human walking: insights from load-carrying and speed experiments J Appl Physiol, July 1, 2003; 95(1): 172 - 183. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y.-S. Han, P. C. Geiger, M. J. Cody, R. L. Macken, and G. C. Sieck ATP consumption rate per cross bridge depends on myosin heavy chain isoform J Appl Physiol, June 1, 2003; 94(6): 2188 - 2196. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. L. Jindrich and R. J. Full Dynamic stabilization of rapid hexapedal locomotion J. Exp. Biol., September 15, 2002; 205(18): 2803 - 2823. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. J. Irschick Evolutionary Approaches for Studying Functional Morphology: Examples from Studies of Performance Capacity Integr. Comp. Biol., April 1, 2002; 42(2): 278 - 290. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. R. Moon, J. J. Hopp, and K. E. Conley Mechanical trade-offs explain how performance increases without increasing cost in rattlesnake tailshaker muscle J. Exp. Biol., March 1, 2002; 205(5): 667 - 675. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. J. Wickler, D. F. Hoyt, E. A. Cogger, and K. M. Hall Effect of load on preferred speed and cost of transport J Appl Physiol, April 1, 2001; 90(4): 1548 - 1551. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. M. Williams Intermittent Swimming by Mammals: A Strategy for Increasing Energetic Efficiency During Diving Integr. Comp. Biol., April 1, 2001; 41(2): 166 - 176. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y.-S. Han, D. N. Proctor, P. C. Geiger, and G. C. Sieck Reserve capacity for ATP consumption during isometric contraction in human skeletal muscle fibers J Appl Physiol, February 1, 2001; 90(2): 657 - 664. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. Burd Body size effects on locomotion and load carriage in the highly polymorphic leaf-cutting ants Atta colombica and Atta cephalotes Behav. Ecol., March 1, 2000; 11(2): 125 - 131. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. Irschick and B. Jayne Size matters: ontogenetic variation in the three-dimensional kinematics of steady-speed locomotion in the lizard Dipsosaurus dorsalis J. Exp. Biol., January 7, 2000; 203(14): 2133 - 2148. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. Hoyt, S. Wickler, and E. Cogger Time of contact and step length: the effect of limb length, running speed, load carrying and incline J. Exp. Biol., January 1, 2000; 203(2): 221 - 227. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Chang, H. Huang, C. Hamerski, and R Kram The independent effects of gravity and inertia on running mechanics J. Exp. Biol., January 1, 2000; 203(2): 229 - 238. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y.-H. Chang and R. Kram Metabolic cost of generating horizontal forces during human running J Appl Physiol, May 1, 1999; 86(5): 1657 - 1662. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. Marsh How muscles deal with real-world loads: the influence of length trajectory on muscle performance J. Exp. Biol., January 12, 1999; 202(23): 3377 - 3385. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. J. Bellizzi, K. A. D. King, S. K. Cushman, and P. G. Weyand Does the application of ground force set the energetic cost of cross-country skiing? J Appl Physiol, November 1, 1998; 85(5): 1736 - 1743. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Biewener Biomechanics of mammalian terrestrial locomotion Science, November 23, 1990; 250(4984): 1097 - 1103. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 T.A. McMahon Mechanics of Locomotion The International Journal of Robotics Research, June 1, 1984; 3(2): 4 - 28. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
